# Mathematical Literacy

## Integrating Literacy Development Opportunities in Your Instruction

A few years ago I attended a professional development seminar designed to help American math teachers integrate best practices and strategies required for their students to be successful with the program.  I was a guest “reference-source,” in the seminar because of the success my students experienced in the program over the prior six years.

The IGCSE program is, in short, a college preparatory program.  By passing the end of course examinations students can demonstrate college readiness.  In my school they’re even given a high school diploma at the end of their 10th grade year, upon successful completion of the program of course.  Some have even exited the school to attend college during what should’ve been their 11th grade year.

At the end of the seminar participants were invited to ask questions.  A teacher, quite frustrated, asked, “How am I supposed to get my freshmen prepared for calculus by their senior year?  There are too many things to teach and not enough time.”  (What she was getting at is that the Cambridge curriculum is appears sparse compared to typical American curricula.  In 9th and 10th grade there are a total of 10 topics for math.)

The presenter asked me to handle the question.  I knew the answer, but could not articulate my thinking in a concise fashion.  She and I were speaking different languages.  I tried to explain that she didn’t have to teach everything.  It is better to have a solid foundation that can be applied to all of the tangential and “one-off” topics in math, than it is to have brief experience with all of those various topics.  We do not have time for both.  We cannot develop deep understanding of the fundamentals of Algebra and have students exposed to all of the iterations and applications.

All she heard was a know-it-all teacher bloviate about some theoretical ideal.  She needed practical advice.  While I tried to provide that advice, I failed, miserably, to do so.  I realized after writing this article that this information, in this article, is what I should have shared with that teacher.

Her question had a specific context, but I believe it hit the heart of one of the biggest issues faced by mathematics teachers, world-wide.

#### How do I get my students to acquire and retain mathematical thinking?

I’m going to offer a two-word solution:  Mathematical Literacy.

If we want our students to really learn mathematics and be flexible enough to apply that knowledge in their futures, they have to be mathematically literate.   Mathematical literacy, for our purposes here, is (1) the ability to decode information from mathematical text and (2) the ability to encode contextually relevant information in mathematical text.

A mathematically literate person can understand mathematics as it is written, but also realizes countless associations, contextual meanings, and tangential ideas.  When a mathematically literate person sees mathematical text, they don’t wonder what should be done.  They read it as information, which is decoded and analyzed.  They are able to articulate appropriate, contextually relevant mathematical responses to information provided.  A student that has developed this literacy is prepared for whatever type of math their futures may hold.  They’re not bound by our efforts, they’re not reliant on what we have directly shown them.  Instead, they’re empowered with the ability to think and communicate mathematically.

The prior two paragraphs are entirely insufficient for defining mathematical literacy.  This article is about developing mathematical literacy, not defining it.  If you’re interested in learning more about what is meant by mathematical literacy, consider listening to the On Teaching Math podcast on mathematical literacy.   You can access the podcast with this link.

The development of mathematically literate students involves two components.  First, students must make sense of problems they’ve never seen, and problems that often expose a misconception created by a person overly reliant on procedural proficiency.   Then, students must apply something they know that is contextually relevant to the problem at hand.  The key component here is they must identify the relevant concept and understanding.  They must make the association.  They cannot be following a mapped-out procedure or following instructions.

In order for this to happen, students must have a certain degree of conceptual understanding and procedural proficiency.  However, marginal proficiency with both is sufficient.  Through developing literacy, they will improve their conceptual understand and their procedural proficiency.

Warning:  Carefully acclimate students to answering questions designed to improve literacy.  If you do the thinking, instead of teasing it out from them, you can destroy the possibility of developing literacy in students.  As we dive into a few examples we will discuss, in detail, how this works.  But, for now, understand that if you demonstrate how to solve the problem, or answer the question, students will not develop literacy.  In order to develop literacy, students need to bring in relevant conceptual understanding (may or may not be directly related to the topic being taught), and then devise a plan and monitor the appropriateness of their approach as they work through it.

If we, the teachers, make all of the connections and do all of the decision making, we’re the ones exercising our own literacy.  Literacy will not be developed through imitation.

Let’s get into how we can set up experiences for our students that will promote the development of mathematical literacy.  We will use solving simple polynomial equations in Algebra 1 as our initial  testing ground.  View these examples in their spirit, not specific application so that you can begin to craft your own questions and design their implementation.

Suppose your students have been taught how to combine like terms, and then solve simple equations, like 3x + 3 + 4x – 5  = 23.  You can run them through countless pages of practice where they’d see every possible iteration of this type of problem.  But, you’d not be increasing their literacy or developing a deeper conceptual understanding.  That would only promote procedural proficiency, which is of course not well retained over time.

Instead, you could give students a problem like Problem A.

The problem on its own will not promote literacy.  How you introduce the problem and your expectations of students will promote mathematical literacy.  If you work a similar problem, by changing the numbers, the students will latch onto the procedure.  They will not be pulling in various mathematical understandings they possess that are contextually relevant.

However, without support, at least initially, students will likely be unable to even approach this type of problem.   The level of performance and thinking required of your students is likely brand new, and foreign to your students.  They will wait for you to show them how it goes, and then try to recreate what they’ve witnessed.  That is exactly what we do not want.

If this was the first opportunity for my students to develop mathematical literacy, I’d explain my expectation and goal to them first.  The purpose of the problem is not to find an answer, but to develop the ability to understand what is written and draw in previously held understanding.  Once the understanding and associations are complete, students are practicing articulating their thinking mathematically.

The purpose of this problem is to provide students with experiences that will prepare them for unknown futures.  This is practice that will help make them adaptable by teaching them how to think mathematically.

A good way to start is to show students the diagram and the information, but not the question.  Ask students to brain storm about what they see, what they know, what comes to mind.  They’ll often be hesitant to state the obvious things, but those obvious things are sometimes the most difficult to see and are sometimes the most important things to notice!

Once students have collaborated, through whole-class discussion collect and list ideas and observations on the board next to the diagram.  Many kids will have forgotten how perimeter works.  This will be a great time to shore-up that issue.

Then, after all of the observations have been recorded and discussed, show students the question.  Remind them that the steps to be followed are not what is important here.  Creating the steps to be followed is what’s important.   We want students to write mathematically, in appropriate contextual response to information provided.

Unfortunately, once this introduction has been completed, the opportunities to develop literacy with this style of problem are long gone.  The road is familiar.   Students will be remembering the process instead of making mathematical connections.  In response to this, teachers need to have two things at the ready.

1. Students coached to fully engage with the problems.  They cannot sit back and wait for the path to be clear.  Finding the path amidst uncertainty is the pursuit.  Once a problem has been explored, the path is found and the goal is no longer attainable.
2. You need a bank of problems at the ready!

Here is another, similar, but fundamentally different problem that could be used to follow Problem A.

Of course helping students develop the habits of thinking that will lead to literacy takes time.  You could easily teach students to “do” this problem in a handful of minutes.  Then, you could try to back-fill some meaning.   But then, students are learning how to “do,” the problem.  They’re not getting practice learning how to thinking mathematically.

The pay-off, however, is worth the time spent!  By learning how to make sense of mathematical information, and how to identify contextually important prior knowledge, then articulating their thinking mathematically, students will, over time, learn much more quickly.  They will also strengthen the prior knowledge through these experiences because these experiences provide opportunity to create connections between topics.  All of these benefits together result in greater retention of the new, and old, mathematical concepts.

Let’s see an example that would be appropriate for students at this level that does not involve Geometry.  Again, we are considering a group of students who can distribute and combine like terms, and solve equations in one variable.

There are two boys, John and Bob.  Both boys like to collect colorful rocks.  Bob puts his rocks in his left pocket, which has a hole in it.  John finds half of the rocks that Bob drops.

If Bob found 36 total rocks, and one third fell out of his pocket, how many of Bob’s rocks did John find?

There is nothing special about this problem, or the previous two.  What is different is how you introduce the problems and how you coach students to approach the problems.  Encourage brainstorming, making sense of the problems.  Set the expectation that students will need to develop mathematical literacy in your class to be successful.  If it is a true expectation, and you are unwavering, but encouraging, students will develop literacy over time.

Questions that are not directly related to the topic at hand can also be used.  In my podcast, On Teaching Math, I start each episode off with a question like this.  They’re typically easily understood and involve solutions that are within reach of most people, regardless of mathematical prowess.  Also, it is often the case that the answer or discovery made by exploring the question is of little consequence.  But, what is important is that students must create a hypothesis and test it, either through independent exploration or collaboration.  As they test their hypothesis, through reflection they must decide to adjust their or approach, or through validation, continue on.

A typical question will be:  How many times in a 24-hour period will the hands of a clock create a 90-degree angle?

Another question that is simpler is: Why is 5 the only prime number that is the sum of the previous two prime numbers?

One more example is:  What number less than 100 has the greatest amount of unique prime factors?

These types of problems are a great way to give students experiences that develop mathematical literacy.  The way a person must engage with those problems is the same way a mathematically literate person can engage with our last example.

One last positive outcome from these questions is that a lot of meaning will be exposed. Students will likely discover things you never thought of.  That is a great outcome and a great way to include activities that promote academic discussion into your classroom.

This final example is a favorite question that can be used to develop literacy.  An ancillary benefit is realized for students who failed to obtain the solution.  In review, students will have a deeper understanding of exactly what the concept at hand with this topic really means.

Suppose you’ve taught your students the mechanics of functions.  They can read and perform operations from examining the notation, they can perform function arithmetic, maybe composition of functions, and they can find inverse functions.  I selected the words, can find, here because they indicate procedure, not concept!

Here’s the question:  Given that f(x) = 2x, what is the value of x when f -1(x) = 4?

When I first saw this question on a Cambridge IGCSE examination I thought the question was entirely unfair!  In fact, I was asked by a person outside of my district how kids could solve this.  The students taking the test had no experience with how to find the inverse of the function!

When the test results were released I was shocked to see that the majority of my students answered the question correctly.  I could not believe it.  Upon questioning, students explained that the question was easy because the input and output for a function and its inverse are reversed.  For example,  if g(2) = 3, then g-1(3) = 2.  So, if the output of the inverse of function f is four, then the input for the function f is four.  Then, f (4) = 24, which is 16.

Because the students understood the concept and had practice applying concepts in new ways, they were successfully able to answer a difficult question correctly!  To make it even better, they answered a question that I had never dreamt of before.  This is a great example of the power of mathematical literacy.

Let’s pull it all together here.  To develop mathematical literacy students must apply conceptual understanding in non-routine applications.  This will likely be a shift in engagement for students and teachers.  As such, we, the teachers, must orchestrate a series of experiences that will help students make this shift.  We start students off with simple to understand questions that are non-algorithmic in nature, and gradually move to more complicated application of the concepts at hand.  All the while, we increasingly move students to more independent thinking, where they collaborate AFTER they've have created and executed a plan. The pay-off is well worth the time and effort required!  This is absolutely a case where going slow early can speed things up over time!

Your devotion and consistent application are required to help students develop mathematical literacy.  You will need to incorporate these style of problems and the appropriate pedagogy into your lessons.  Students will need opportunities to practice their literacy on homework, quizzes and tests.  Many of the students will require continual encouragement and reiteration of the relevance of their efforts (why it is important for them, that they develop literacy).

If your students develop mathematical literacy under your tutelage, then you will have served the future needs of that student well.  They will be prepared for an unknown future because they will be empowered with the ability to think, and communicate, mathematically.

If you are looking for questions that can be used to promote mathematical literacy within the application of a specific topic in math, please leave me a comment below.  I have a large collection of these types of questions built over the years.

# Teaching Square Roots Conceptually

teaching square roots

How to Teach Square Roots Conceptually

If you have taught for any length of time, you’ll surely have seen one of these two things below.

Sure, this can be corrected procedurally.  But, over time, they’ll forget the procedure and revert back to following whatever misconception they possess that has them make these mistakes in the first place.

I’d like to share with you a few approaches that can help.   Keep in mind, there is no way to have students seamlessly integrate new information with their existing body of knowledge.  There will always be confusion and misunderstanding.  By focusing in on the very nature of the issues here, and that is lack of conceptual understanding and lack of mathematical literacy, we can make things smoother, quicker, and improve retention.

Step one is to teach students to properly read square roots.  Sure, a square root can be an operation, but it is also the best way to write a lot of irrational numbers.  Make sure you students understand these two ways of reading a square root number.

Students are quick studies when it comes to getting out of responsibility and side-stepping expectations.  Very quickly, when asked “What does the square root of 11 ask?” students will say, “What squared is the radicand?”

When pressed on the radicand, they may or may not understand it is 11.  But, they’ll be unlikely to have really considered the question for what it asks.  Do not be satisfied with students that are just repeating what they’ve heard.  Make them demonstrate what they know.  A good way to do so is by asking a question like the one below.

Another way to test their knowledge is to ask them to evaluate the following:

$\sqrt{2}×\sqrt{2}.$

We do not want students saying it is the square root of four at this point.  To do so means they have not made sense of the second fact listed about the number.  An alternative to using a Natural Number as the radicand is to use an unknown.  For example:

$\sqrt{m}×\sqrt{m}.$

Step two requires them to understand why the square root of nine, for example, is three.  The reason why it is true has nothing to do with steps.  Instead, the square root of nine asks, “What squared is 9?”  The answer is three.  There is no other reason.

Once again, students make excellent pull-toy dolls, saying random things when prompted.  Once in a while they recite the correct phrase, even though they don’t understand it, and we get fooled.  It is imperative to be creative and access their knowledge in a new way.

Before I show you how that can be done with something like the square root of a square number, let’s consider the objections of students here.  Students will complain that we’re making it complicated, or that we are confusing them.

First, we’re not making the math complicated.  Anything being learned for the first time is complicated.  Things only become simple with the development of expertise.  How complicated is it to teach a small child to tie their shoes?  But once the skill is mastered, it is done without thought.

The second point is that we are not confusing them, they are already confused.  They just don’t know it yet.   They will not move from being ignorant to knowledgeable without first working through the confusion.  If we want them to understand so they can develop related, more advanced skills, and we want them to retain what they’re learning, they have to understand.  They must grasp the concept.

So how can we really determine if they know why the square root of twenty-five is really five?  We do so by asking the same question in a new way.

Another way to get at the knowledge is by asking why the square root of 25 is not 6.  Students will say, “Because it’s five.”  While they’re right, that does not explain why the square root of 25 is not six.  Only when they demonstrate that 62 = 36, not 25, will they have shown their correct thinking.  But, as is the case with the other questions, students will soon learn to mimic this response while not possessing the knowledge.  So, you have to be clever and on your toes.  This point is worth laboring!

Step three involves verifying square root simplification of non-perfect squares.  This uncovers a slew of misconceptions, which will address. Before we get into that, here is exactly what I mean.

Have students explain what is true about the square root of twenty-four.  There are two ways they should be able to think of this number (and one of them is not as an operation, yet).

1.      What squared is 24?

2.      This number squared is 24.

The statement is true if “two times the square root of six, squared, is twenty-four.”  Just like the square root of 9 is three only because 32 = 9.

The first hurdle here is that students do not really understand irrational numbers like the square root of six.  They’ve learned how to approximate and do calculation with the approximations. Here is how they see it.

$\sqrt{2}=1.4$

$3+\sqrt{2}=4.4$

$3×\sqrt{2}=4.2$

What this means is that students believe:

1.      Addition of a rational number and an irrational number is rational.

2.      The product of a rational and irrational number is also rational.

a.       This can be true if the rational number is zero.

This misunderstanding, which naturally occurs as a byproduct of learning to approximate without understanding what approximation means, is a major hurdle for students.  It must be addressed at this time.

To do so, students need to be made to understand that irrational numbers cannot be written with our decimal or fraction system.  We use special symbols in the place of the number itself, because we quite literally have no other way to write the number.

A good place to start is with π.  This number is the ratio of a circle’s diameter and its circumference.  The number cannot be written as a decimal.  It is not 3.14, 22/7, or anything we can write with a decimal or as a fraction.  The square root of two is similar.  The picture below shows probably over 1,000 decimal places, but it is not complete.  This is only close, but not it.

Students will know the Pythagorean Theorem.  It is a good idea to show them how an isosceles right triangle, with side lengths of one, will have a hypotenuse of the square root of two.  So while we cannot write the number, we can draw it!

The other piece of new information here is how square roots can be irrational.  If the radicand is not a perfect square, the number is irrational.  At this point, we cannot pursue this too far because we’ll lose sight of our goal, which is to get them to understand irrational and rational arithmetic.

This point, and all others, will be novel concepts.  You will need to circle back and revisit each of them periodically.  Students only will latch on to correct understanding when they fully realize that their previously held believes are incorrect.  What typically happens is they pervert new information to fit what they already believed, creating new misconceptions.  So be patient, light-hearted and consistent.

Once students see that the square root of two is irrational, they can see how they cannot carry out and write with our number system, either of these two arithmetic operations:

This will likely be the first time they will understand one of the standards for the Number Unit in High School level mathematics.

Students must demonstrate that the product of a non-zero rational and irrational number is irrational.

Students must demonstrate the sum of a rational and an irrational number is irrational.

Keep in mind, this may seem like a huge investment of time at this point, and they don’t even know how to simplify a square root number yet.  However, we have uncovered many misconceptions and taught them what the math really means!  This will pay off as we move forward.  It will also help establish an expectation and introduce a new way to learn.  Math, eventually, will not be thought of as steps, but instead consequences of ideas and facts.

Back to our question:

Just like the square root of nine being three because 32 = 9, this is true if:

${\left(2\sqrt{6}\right)}^{2}=24.$

Make sure students understand that there is an unwritten operation at play between the two and the irrational number.  We don’t write the multiplication, which is confusing because 26 is just considered differently.  It isn’t 12 at all (2 times 6)!

Once that is established, because of the commutative property of multiplication,

$2\sqrt{6}×2\sqrt{6}=2×2×\sqrt{6}×\sqrt{6}.$

There should be no talk of cancelling.  The property of the square root of six is that if you square it, you get six.  That’s the first thing they learned about square root numbers.

$2×2×\sqrt{6}×\sqrt{6}=4×6.$

As mentioned before, students are quick studies.  They learn to mimic and get right answers without developing understanding. This may seem like a superficial and easy task, but do not allow them to trick themselves or you regarding their understanding.

A good type of question to ask is:

To do this, we students to square the expression on the left of the equal sign to verify it equals the radicand.  This addresses the very meaning of square root numbers.

Last step is to teach them what the word simplify means in the context of square roots.  It means to rewrite the number so that the radicand does not contain a perfect square.

The way to coach students to do this is to factor the radicand to find the largest square number.  This is aligned with the meaning of square roots because square roots ask about square numbers.  When they find the LARGEST perfect square that is a factor of the radicand, the rewrite the expression as a product and then simply answer the question asked by the square roots.  Here’s what it looks like.

$48=2×24,\text{\hspace{0.17em}}3×16,\text{\hspace{0.17em}}4×12,\text{\hspace{0.17em}}6×8.$

$\sqrt{48}=\sqrt{16}×\sqrt{3}$
Write the square root of the perfect square first so that you do not end up with
$\sqrt{3}4,$ which looks like $\sqrt{34}.$

$\sqrt{48}=4×\sqrt{3}$.

At this point, students should be ready to simplify square roots.  However, be warned about a common misconception developed at this point.  They’ll easily run the two procedures into one.  They often write things like:

$\sqrt{18}=\sqrt{9}×\sqrt{2}$

$\sqrt{18}=3\sqrt{2}$

${\left(3\sqrt{2}\right)}^{2}=9×2$

$9×2=18$

$\sqrt{18}=18.$

The moral of the story here is that to teach students conceptually means that you must be devoted, diligent and consistent with reverting back to the foundational facts, #1 and #2 at the beginning of this discussion.

This approach in no way promises to prevent silly mistakes or misconceptions.  But what it does do is create a common understanding that can be used to easily explain why $\sqrt{12}$ is not $3\sqrt{2}.$  It is not “three root two,” because

This referring to the conceptual facts and understanding is powerful for students. Over time they will start referring to what they know to be true for validation instead of examination of steps.  There is not a step in getting $\sqrt{12}=3\sqrt{2},$ that is wrong.  What is wrong is that their work is not mathematically consistent and their answer does not answer the question, what squared is twelve?

If a student really understands square roots, how to multiply them with other roots, and how arithmetic works irrational and rational numbers, the topics that follow go much more quickly.  After this will be square root arithmetic, like $5\sqrt{2}-3\sqrt{8},$ and then cube roots and the like.  Each topic that you can use to dig deep into the mathematical meaning will, over time, quicken the pace of the class.

In summary:

1.      Square roots have a meaning.  The meaning can be considered a question or a statement, and both need to be understood by students.

a.       This meaning is why the square root of 16 is 4.

2.      Square roots of non-square numbers are irrational.  Arithmetic with rational and irrational numbers is irrational (except with zero).

3.      To simplify a square root is to rewrite any factor of the radicand that is a perfect square.

a.       When rewriting, place the square root of the square number first.

4.      The simplification of a square root number is only right if that number squared is the radicand.

I hope you find this informative, thought-provoking, and are encouraged to take up the challenge of teaching conceptually!  It is well worth the initial struggles.

For lessons, assignments, and further exploration with this topic, please visit: https://thebeardedmathman.com/squareroots/

## Vestiges of the Past Making Math Confusing

Something in Math HAS to Change

Convention is a beautiful thing.  It allows us to use symbols to convey little things like direction or a sound.  We can piece those things together to make larger things, and eventually use it to create something like what you’re reading now.  There are no inherent meanings to these shapes we call letters, or the sounds we use when speaking.  It all works because we agree, somehow, upon what they mean.  Of course, over generations and cultures, and between even different languages, some things get crossed up in translation, but it’s still pretty powerful.

The structure of writing, punctuation, and the Oxford comma, they all work because we agree.  We can look back and try to see the history of how the conventions have changed and sometimes find interesting connections.  Sometimes, there are artifacts from our past that just don’t really make sense anymore.  Either the language has evolved passed the usefulness, or the language adopted other conventions that conflict.

One example of this is the difference between its and it’s.  An apostrophe can be used in a conjunction and can also be used to show ownership.  Pretty simple rule to keep straight with its and it’s, but whose and who’s.  Why is it whose, with an e at the end?

According to my friendly neighborhood English teacher there was a great vowel shift, which can be read about here, where basically, people in around the 15th century wanted to sound fancy and wanted their words to look fancy when written.  So the letters e and b were added to words like whose and thumb.

Maybe we should take this one step further, and use thumbe.  Sounds good, right?

But then, there’s the old rule, i before e except after c, except in words like neighbor and weight, and in the month of May, or on a Tuesday.  Weird, er, wierd, right?

All said, not a big deal because those tricks of language will not cause a student to be illiterate.  A student can mix those things up and still have access to symbolism and writing and higher level understanding of language.

There are some conventions in math that work this way, too.  There are things that simply are a hold-over of how things were done a long time ago.  The convention carries with it a history, that’s what makes it powerful.  But sometimes the convention needs to change because it no longer is useful at helping making clear the intentions of the author.

One of the issues with changing this convention is that the people who would be able to make such changes are so well versed in the topic, they don’t see it as an issue.  Or, maybe they do, but they believe that since they got it right, figured it out, so could anybody else.

There is one particular thing in math that stands out as particularly problematic.  The radical symbol, it must go!  There’s a much more elegant method of writing that is intuitive and makes sense because it ties into other, already established ways of writing mathematics.

But, before I get into that exactly, let me say there’s an ancillary issue at hand. It starts somewhere in 3rd or 4th grade here in the US and causes problems that are manifested all the way through Calculus.  Yup, it’s multiplication.

Let me take just a moment to reframe multiplication by whole numbers and then by fractions for you so that the connection between those things and rational exponents will be more clear.

Consider first, 3 × 5, which is of course 15.  But this means we start with a group that has three and add it to itself five times.

Much like exponents are repeated multiplication, multiplication is repeated addition.  A key idea here is that with both we are using the same number over and again, the number written first.  The second number describes how many times we are using that first number.

Now of course 3 × 5 is the same as 5 × 3, but that doesn’t change the meaning of the grouping as I described.

3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 3 × 5

Now let’s consider how this works with a fraction.

15 × ⅕.  The denominator describes how many times a number has been added to itself to arrive at fifteen.  We know that’s three.  So 15 × ⅕ = 3.

3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 15

Three is added to itself five times to arrive at fifteen.

Let’s consider 15 × ⅖, where the five in the denominator is saying we are looking for a number that’s been repeatedly added to get to 15, but exactly added to itself 5 times.

In other words, what number can you add to itself to arrive at 15 in five equal steps?  That’s ⅕.

The two in the numerator is asking, how far are you after the 2nd step?

3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 15

The second step is six.

Another way to see this is shown below:

3 →6→9→12→15

Step 1: 3 → Step 2: 6 → Step 3: 9 → Step 4: 12 → Step 5: 15

Thinking of it this way we can easily see that 15 × ⅘ is 12 and 15 × 5/5 is 15.  All of this holds true and consistent with the other ways we thinking about fractions.

So we see how multiplication is repeated addition of the same number and how fractions ask questions about the number of repeats taken to arrive at an end result.

Exponents are very similar, except instead of repeated addition they are repeated multiplication.

Multiplication:  3 × 5 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3

Exponents:  3⁵ = 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3

Do you see how the trailing numbers describe how many of the previous number there exists, but the way the trailing number is written, as normal text or a superscript (tiny little number up above), informs the reader of the operation?

Pretty cool, eh?

Just FYI, 3 times itself 5 times is 243.

15 × ⅕ = 3, because 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 15.  That is, three plus itself five times is fifteen.

2431/5= 3 because 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 243.  That is, three times itself five times is two hundred and forty three.

You might be thinking, big deal... but watch how much simpler this way of thinking about rational exponents is with something like an exponent of ⅗.  Let’s look at this like steps:

3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 243

3→9→27→81→243

Step one is three, step two is nine, step three is twenty-seven, the fourth step is eighty one, and the fifth step is 243.  So, 2433/5is asking, looking at the denominator first, what number multiplied by itself five times is 243, and the numerator says, what’s the third step?  Twenty-seven, do you see?

Connecting the notation this way makes it simple and easy to read.  The only tricky parts would be the multiplication facts.

## Why Does the Order of Operations Work?

Why does the order of operations help us arrive at the correct calculation?  How does it work, why is it PEMDAS?  Why not addition first, then multiplication then groups, or something else?

I took it upon myself to get to the bottom of this question because I realized that I am so familiar with manipulating Algebra and mathematical expressions that I know how to navigate the pitfalls.  That instills a sense of conceptual knowledge, but that was a false sense.  I did not understand why we followed PEMDAS, until now.

By fully understanding why we follow the order of operations we can gain insight into the way math is written and have better abilities to understand and explain ourselves to others.  So, if you’re a teacher, this is powerful because you’ll have a foundation that can be shared with others without them having to trip in all of the holes.  If you’re a student, this is a great piece of information because it will empower you to see mathematics more clearly.

Let’s start with the basics, addition and subtraction.  First off, subtraction is addition of negative integers.  We are taught “take-away,” but that’s not the whole story.  Addition and subtraction are the same operation.  We do them from left to right as a matter of convention, because we read from left to right.

But what is addition?  In order to unpack why the order of operations works we must understand this most basic question.  Well, addition, is repeated counting, nothing more.  Suppose you have 3 vials of zombie vaccine and someone donates another 6 to your cause.  Instead of laying them out and counting from the beginning, we can combine six and three to get the count of nine.

And what is 9?  Nine is | | | | | | | | |.

What about multiplication?  That’s just skip counting.  For example, say you now have four baskets, each with 7 vials of this zombie vaccine.  Four groups of seven is twenty-eight.  We could lay them all out and count them, we could lay them all out and add them, or we could multiply.

Now suppose someone gave you another 6 vials.  To calculate how many vials you had, you could not add the six to one of the baskets, and then multiply because not all of the baskets would have the same amount.  When we are multiplying we are skip counting by the same amount, however many times is appropriate.

For example:

4 baskets of 7 vials each

4 × 7 = 28

or

7 + 7 + 7 + 7 = 28

or

[ | | | | | | | ]   [ | | | | | | | ]   [ | | | | | | | ]   [ | | | | | | | ]

Consider the 4 × 7 method of calculation.  We are repeatedly counting by 7.  If we considered the scenario where we received an additional six vials, it would look like this:

4 × 7 + 6

If you add first, you end up with 4 baskets of 13 vials each, which is not the case.  We have four baskets of 7 vials each, plus six more vials.

Addition compacts the counting.  Multiplication compacts the addition of same sized groups of things.  If you add before you multiply, you are changing the size of the groups, or the number of the groups, when in fact, addition really only changes single pieces that belong in those groups, but not the groups themselves.

Division is multiplication by the reciprocal.  In one respect it can be thought of as skip subtracting, going backwards, but that doesn’t change how it fits with respect to the order of operations.  It is the same level of compacting counting as multiplication.

Exponents are repeated multiplication, of the same thing!

Consider:

3 + 6

4 × 7 = 7 + 7 + 7 + 7

74 = 7 × 7 × 7 × 7

This is one layer of further complexity.  Look at 7 × 7.  That is seven trucks each with seven boxes.  The next × 7 is like seven baskets per box.  The last × 7 is seven vials in each basket.

The 4 × 7 is just four baskets of seven vials.

The 3 + 9 is like having 3 vials and someone giving you six more.

So, let’s look at:

9 + 4 × 74

Remember that the 74 is seven trucks of seven boxes of seven baskets, each with seven vials!  Multiplication is skip counting and we are skip counting repeatedly by 7, four times.

Now, the 4 × 74 means that we have four groups of seven trucks, each with seven boxes, each with seven baskets containing seven vials of zombie vaccine each.

The 9 in the front means we have nine more vials of zombie vaccine.  To add the nine to the four first, would increase the number of trucks of vaccine we have!

Now parentheses don’t have a mathematical reason to go first, not any more than why we do math from left to right.  It’s convention.  We all agree that we group things with the highest priority with parentheses, so we do them first.

(9 + 4) × 74

The above expression means we have 9 and then four more groups of seven trucks with seven boxes with …  and so on.

Exponents are compacted multiplication, but the multiplication is of the same number.  The multiplication is compacting the addition.  The addition is compacting the counting.  Each layer kind of nests or layers groups of like sized things, allowing us to skip over repeated calculations that are the same.

We write mathematics with these operations because it is clean and clear.  If we tried to write out 35, we would have a page-long monstrosity.  We can perform this calculation readily, but often write the expression instead of the calculation because it is cleaner.

The order of operations respects level of nesting, or compaction, of exponents, multiplication and addition, as they related to counting individual things.  The higher the order of arithmetic we go, up to exponents, the higher the level of compaction.

Exponents are repeated multiplication, and multiplication is repeated addition, and addition is repeated, or skip counting.  We group things together with all of these operations, but how that grouping is done must be done in order when perform the calculations.

## Cube Roots and Higher Order Roots

other roots

Cube Roots
and

squared is the radicand. A geometric explanation is that given the area of a
square, what’s the side length? A
geometric explanation of a cube root is given the volume of a cube, what’s the
side length. The way you find the volume
of a cube is multiply the length by itself three times (cube it).

The way we write cube
root is similar to square roots, with one very big difference, the index.



a

squareroot

a
3

cuberoot

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGVbGaamiDaaqaamaakeaabaGaamyyaaWcbaGaaG4maaaakiabgkzi

There actually is an
index for a square root, but we don’t write the two. It is just assumed to be there.

Warning: When writing cube roots, or other roots, be
careful to write the index in the proper place.
If not, what you will write will look like multiplication and you can
confuse yourself. When writing by hand,
this is an easy thing to do.



3
8

8
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aabaGaaGioaaWcbeaakiaaykW7caaMc8UaaGPaVlaaykW7caaMc8Ua
aGPaVlaaykW7caaMc8UaaGPaVpaakeaabaGaaGioaaWcbaGaaG4maa
aaaaa@4718@

To simplify a square root
you factor the radicand and look for the largest perfect square. To simplify a cubed root you factor the
radicand and find the largest perfect cube.
A perfect cube is a number times itself three times. The first ten are 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216,
343, 512, 729, 1,000.

Let’s see an example:

Simplify:



16

3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIXaGaaGOnaaWcbaGaaG4maaaaaaa@384A@

Factor the radicand, 16, find the largest perfect
cube, which is 8.



8
3

×
2
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI4aaaleaacaaIZaaaaOGaey41aq7aaOqaaeaacaaIYaaaleaacaaI
Zaaaaaaa@3B46@

The cube root of eight is just two.



2
2
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aabaGaaGOmaaWcbaGaaG4maaaaaaa@3847@

The following is true,



16

3

=2
2
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
ikdaaSqaaiaaiodaaaaaaa@3BAA@

,

only if



(

2
2
3

)

3

=16

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIYaWaaOqaaeaacaaIYaaaleaacaaIZaaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWa

Arithmetic with other
radicals, like cube roots, work the same as they do with square roots. We will multiply the rational numbers
together, then the irrational numbers together, and then see if simplification can
occur.



(

2
2
3

)

3

=
2
3

×

(

2
3

)

3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIYaWaaOqaaeaacaaIYaaaleaacaaIZaaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWa
aWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaOGaeyypa0JaaGOmamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG
4maaaakiabgEna0oaabmaabaWaaOqaaeaacaaIYaaaleaacaaIZaaa
aaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaaaa@43AC@

Two cubed is just eight and the cube root of two cubed
is the cube root of eight.



2
3

×

(

2
3

)

3

=8×(

2
3

)
(

2
3

)
(

2
3

)

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaleqabaGaaG4maaaakiabgEna0oaabmaabaWaaOqaaeaacaaIYaaa
leaacaaIZaaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaO
Gaeyypa0JaaGioaiabgEna0oaabmaabaWaaOqaaeaacaaIYaaaleaa
aaWcbaGaaG4maaaaaOGaayjkaiaawMcaaaaa@4B2C@



2
3

×

(

2
3

)

3

=8×

222

3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaleqabaGaaG4maaaakiabgEna0oaabmaabaWaaOqaaeaacaaIYaaa
leaacaaIZaaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaO
Gaeyypa0JaaGioaiabgEna0oaakeaabaGaaGOmaiabgwSixlaaikda
cqGHflY1caaIYaaaleaacaaIZaaaaaaa@4957@



2
3

×

(

2
3

)

3

=8×
8
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaleqabaGaaG4maaaakiabgEna0oaabmaabaWaaOqaaeaacaaIYaaa
leaacaaIZaaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaO
Gaeyypa0JaaGioaiabgEna0oaakeaabaGaaGioaaWcbaGaaG4maaaa
aaa@4351@

The cube root of eight is just two.



8×
8
3

=8×2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
na0oaakeaabaGaaGioaaWcbaGaaG4maaaakiabg2da9iaaiIdacqGH
xdaTcaaIYaaaaa@3F0E@



(

2
2
3

)

3

=16

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIYaWaaOqaaeaacaaIYaaaleaacaaIZaaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWa

Negatives and cube roots: The square
root of a negative number is imagery.
There isn’t a real number times itself that is negative because, well a
negative squared is positive. Cubed
numbers, though, can be negative.



3×3×3=27

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
4maiabgEna0kabgkHiTiaaiodacqGHxdaTcqGHsislcaaIZaGaeyyp
a0JaeyOeI0IaaGOmaiaaiEdaaaa@4293@

So the cube root of a
negative number is, well, a negative number.



27

3

=3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
GHsislcaaIYaGaaG4naaWcbaGaaG4maaaakiabg2da9iabgkHiTiaa
iodaaaa@3BF3@

Other indices (plural of index): The index tells you what power of a base to look
for. For example, the 6th
root is looking for a perfect 6th number, like 64. Sixty four is two to the sixth power.



64

6

=2because
2
6

=64.

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI2aGaaGinaaWcbaGaaGOnaaaakiabg2da9iaaikdacaaMb8UaaGza
caaI2aaaaOGaeyypa0JaaGOnaiaaisdacaGGUaaaaa@51D6@

A few points to make
clear.

·
If the index is
even and the radicand is negative, the number is irrational.

·
does not contain a factor that is a perfect power of the index, the number is
irrational

·
All operations,
including rationalizing the denominator, work just as they do with square
roots.

Rationalizing the Denominator:

Consider the following:



9

3
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI5aaabaWaaOqaaeaacaaIZaaaleaacaaIZaaaaaaaaaa@385F@

If we multiply by the
cube root of three, we get this:



9

3
3

3
3

3
3

=

9
3
3

9
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI5aaabaWaaOqaaeaacaaIZaaaleaacaaIZaaaaaaakiabgwSixdbb
aaaOqaamaakeaabaGaaG4maaWcbaGaaG4maaaaaaGcpaGaeyypa0Za
aSaaaeaacaaI5aWaaOqaaeaacaaIZaaaleaacaaIZaaaaaGcbaWaaO
qaaeaacaaI5aaaleaacaaIZaaaaaaaaaa@454D@

Since 9 is not a perfect
cube, the denominator is still irrational.
Instead, we need to multiply by the cube root of nine.



9

3
3

9
3

9
3

=

9
9
3

27

3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI5aaabaWaaOqaaeaacaaIZaaaleaacaaIZaaaaaaakiabgwSixdbb
aaaOqaamaakeaabaGaaGyoaaWcbaGaaG4maaaaaaGcpaGaeyypa0Za
aSaaaeaacaaI5aWaaOqaaeaacaaI5aaaleaacaaIZaaaaaGcbaWaaO
qaaeaacaaIYaGaaG4naaWcbaGaaG4maaaaaaaaaa@4619@

Since twenty seven is a perfect cube, this can be
simplified.



9

3
3

=

9
9
3

3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI5aaabaWaaOqaaeaacaaIZaaaleaacaaIZaaaaaaakiabg2da9maa
laaabaGaaGyoamaakeaabaGaaGyoaaWcbaGaaG4maaaaaOqaaiaaio
daaaaaaa@3CA4@

And always make sure to reduce if possible.



9

3
3

=3
9
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI5aaabaWaaOqaaeaacaaIZaaaleaacaaIZaaaaaaakiabg2da9iaa

This is a bit tricky, to
be sure. The way the math is written
does not offer us a clear insight into how to manage the situation. However, the topic we will see next, rational
exponents, will make this much clearer.

Practice Problems:

Simplify or perform the indicated operations:



1.

64

4

2.
9
3

+4
9
3

3.
9
3

×4
9
3

4.

64

5

5.

7

7
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
GaaiOlaiaaykW7caaMc8+aaOqaaeaacaaI2aGaaGinaaWcbaGaaGin
aaaaaOqaaaqaaaqaaiaaikdacaGGUaGaaGPaVlaaykW7daGcbaqaai
aaiMdaaSqaaiaaiodaaaGccqGHRaWkcaaI0aWaaOqaaeaacaaI5aaa
leaacaaIZaaaaaGcbaaabaaabaaabaGaaG4maiaac6cacaaMc8UaaG
baqaaiaaiMdaaSqaaiaaiodaaaaakeaaaeaaaeaacaaI0aGaaiOlai
aaykW7caaMc8+aaOqaaeaacaaI2aGaaGinaaWcbaGaaGynaaaaaOqa
aaaaaaaaaa@6089@

## Addition and Subtraction of Square Roots

Mathematical Operations and Square
Roots

Part 1

In this section we will
see why we can add things like



5
2

+3
2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
baaaaa@3A0D@

things like



2
5

+2
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
baaaaa@3A0D@

. Later we will
see how multiplication and division work when radicals (square roots and such)
are involved.

is just repeated counting. The
expression



5
2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aabaGaaGOmaaWcbeaaaaa@378D@

means



2

+
2

+
2

+
2

+
2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIYaaaleqaaOGaey4kaSYaaOaaaeaacaaIYaaaleqaaOGaey4kaSYa
aOaaaeaacaaIYaaaleqaaOGaey4kaSYaaOaaaeaacaaIYaaaleqaaO
Gaey4kaSYaaOaaaeaacaaIYaaaleqaaaaa@3DDA@

, and the expression



3
2

means
2

+
2

+
2

.

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aabaGaaGOmaaWcbeaakiaabccacaqGTbGaaeyzaiaabggacaqGUbGa
aaikdaaSqabaGccqGHRaWkdaGcaaqaaiaaikdaaSqabaGccaGGUaaa
aa@4297@

So if we add those two expressions,



5
2

+3
2

,

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
baGccaGGSaaaaa@3AC7@

we get



8
2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aabaGaaGOmaaWcbeaaaaa@3790@

. Subtraction works the same way.

Consider the expression



2
5

+2
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
baaaaa@3A0D@

. This means



5

+
5

+
3

+
3

.

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI1aaaleqaaOGaey4kaSYaaOaaaeaacaaI1aaaleqaaOGaey4kaSYa
aOaaaeaacaaIZaaaleqaaOGaey4kaSYaaOaaaeaacaaIZaaaleqaaO
GaaiOlaaaa@3CDB@

The square
root of five and the square root of three are different things, so the simplest
we can write that sum is



2
5

+2
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
baaaaa@3A0D@

.

A common way to describe
when square roots can or cannot be added (or subtracted) is, “If the radicands
are the same you add/subtract the number in front.” This is not a bad rule of thumb, but it
treats square roots as something other than numbers.



5×3+4×3=9×3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
na0kaaiodacqGHRaWkcaaI0aGaey41aqRaaG4maiabg2da9iaaiMda
cqGHxdaTcaaIZaaaaa@429B@

The above statement is true. Five groups of three and four groups of three
is nine groups of three.



5
3

+4
3

=9
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
baGccqGH9aqpcaaI5aWaaOaaaeaacaaIZaaaleqaaaaa@3CBB@

The above statement is also true because five groups
of the numbers squared that is three, plus four more groups of the same number
would be nine groups of that number.

However, the following
cannot be combined in such a fashion.



3×8+5×2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
na0kaaiIdacqGHRaWkcaaI1aGaey41aqRaaGOmaaaa@3E01@

While this can be calculated, we cannot add the two
terms together because the first portion is three



MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaaaaaWdbiaa=nbiaaa@37C3@

eights and the
second is five



MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaaaaaWdbiaa=nbiaaa@37C3@

twos.



3
8

+5
2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
baaaaa@3A13@

The same situation is happening here.

Common Mistake:
The following is
obviously wrong. A student learning this
level of math would be highly unlikely to make such a mistake.



7×2+9×2=16×4

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
na0kaaikdacqGHRaWkcaaI5aGaey41aqRaaGOmaiabg2da9iaaigda
caaI2aGaey41aqRaaGinaaaa@4359@

Seven



MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaaaaaWdbiaa=nbiaaa@37C3@

twos and nine



MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaaaaaWdbiaa=nbiaaa@37C3@

twos makes a
total of sixteen



MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaaaaaWdbiaa=nbiaaa@37C3@

twos, not
sixteen



MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaaaaaWdbiaa=nbiaaa@37C3@

fours. You’re adding the number of twos you have together,
not the twos themselves. And yet, this
is a common thing done with square roots.



7
2

+9
2

=16
4

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
baGccqGH9aqpcaaIXaGaaGOnamaakaaabaGaaGinaaWcbeaaaaa@3D79@

This is incorrect for the
same reason. The thing you are counting
does not change by counting it.



5
2

+3
2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
baaaaa@3A0D@

? Is that a
violation of the order of operations (PEMDAS)?
Clearly, the five and square root of two are multiplying, as are the
three and the square root of two. Why
does this work?

Multiplication is a
short-cut for repeated addition of one particular number. Since both terms are repeatedly adding the
same thing, we can combine them.

But if the things we are
repeatedly adding are not the same, we cannot add them together before multiplying.



3

40

9

90

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aabaGaaGinaiaaicdaaSqabaGccqGHsislcaaI5aWaaOaaaeaacaaI
5aGaaGimaaWcbeaaaaa@3B99@

?

Before claiming that this
expression cannot be simplified you must make sure the square roots are fully
simplified. It turns out that both of
these can be simplified.



3

40

9

90

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aabaGaaGinaiaaicdaaSqabaGccqGHsislcaaI5aWaaOaaaeaacaaI
5aGaaGimaaWcbeaaaaa@3B99@



3
4

10

9
9

10

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
SixpaakaaabaGaaGinaaWcbeaakiabgwSixpaakaaabaGaaGymaiaa
icdaaSqabaGccqGHsislcaaI5aGaeyyXIC9aaOaaaeaacaaI5aaale
qaaOGaeyyXIC9aaOaaaeaacaaIXaGaaGimaaWcbeaaaaa@4681@

The dot symbol for
multiplication is written here to remind us that all of these numbers are being
multiplied.



3
4

10

9
9

10

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
SixpaakaaabaGaaGinaaWcbeaakiabgwSixpaakaaabaGaaGymaiaa
icdaaSqabaGccqGHsislcaaI5aGaeyyXIC9aaOaaaeaacaaI5aaale
qaaOGaeyyXIC9aaOaaaeaacaaIXaGaaGimaaWcbeaaaaa@4681@



32

10

93

10

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
SixlaaikdacqGHflY1daGcaaqaaiaaigdacaaIWaaaleqaaOGaeyOe
I0IaaGyoaiabgwSixlaaiodacqGHflY1daGcaaqaaiaaigdacaaIWa
aaleqaaaaa@462F@



6

10

27

10

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aabaGaaGymaiaaicdaaSqabaGccqGHsislcaaIYaGaaG4namaakaaa
baGaaGymaiaaicdaaSqabaaaaa@3C4B@



21

10

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x



7+7

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI3aGaey4kaSIaaG4naaWcbeaaaaa@3876@

versus



7

+
7

.

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI3aaaleqaaOGaey4kaSYaaOaaaeaacaaI3aaaleqaaOGaaiOlaaaa
@3957@

Notice that in the first
expression there is a group, the radical symbol groups the sevens
together. Since the operation is adding,
this becomes:



7+7

=

14

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI3aGaey4kaSIaaG4naaWcbeaakiabg2da9maakaaabaGaaGymaiaa
isdaaSqabaaaaa@3B1A@

.

Since the square root of
fourteen cannot be simplified, we are done.

The other expression
becomes:



7

+
7

=2
7

.

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI3aaaleqaaOGaey4kaSYaaOaaaeaacaaI3aaaleqaaOGaeyypa0Ja
aGOmamaakaaabaGaaG4naaWcbeaakiaac6caaaa@3BFF@

Summary: If the radicals are the same number, the number in
front just describes how many of them there are. You can combine (add/subtract) them if they
are the same number. You are finished
when you have combined all of the like
terms
together and all square roots are simplified.

Practice Problems:
Perform the indicated
operation.



1.

25

5
5

+5

2.

48

+3
3

3.

75

+8

24

+

75

4.

200

+8
8

2

32

5.2

98

+16
2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
GaaiOlaiaaykW7caaMc8UaaGPaVpaakaaabaGaaGOmaiaaiwdaaSqa
baGccqGHsislcaaI1aWaaOaaaeaacaaI1aaaleqaaOGaey4kaSIaaG
ynaaqaaaqaaaqaaiaaikdacaGGUaGaaGPaVlaaykW7daGcaaqaaiaa
isdacaaI4aaaleqaaOGaey4kaSIaaG4mamaakaaabaGaaG4maaWcbe
aaaOqaaaqaaaqaaiaaiodacaGGUaGaaGPaVlaaykW7cqGHsisldaGc
aaqaaiaaiEdacaaI1aaaleqaaOGaey4kaSIaaGioamaakaaabaGaaG
OmaiaaisdaaSqabaGccqGHRaWkdaGcaaqaaiaaiEdacaaI1aaaleqa
aaGcbaaabaaabaGaaGinaiaac6cacaaMc8UaaGPaVpaakaaabaGaaG
OmaiaaicdacaaIWaaaleqaaOGaey4kaSIaaGioamaakaaabaGaaGio
GcbaaabaaabaGaaGynaiaac6cacaaMc8UaaGPaVlabgkHiTiaaikda
GcaaqaaiaaikdaaSqabaaaaaa@6F2E@

## What Do Grades Really Mean?

The following is highly contentious.  Many of the situations discussed here should ultimately be considered on an individual basis.  The purpose of this is not to create a rubber-stamp solution to all problems that arise with grade assignment and student ability and or performance, but is to provide a general framework so that those individual decisions can be made in fairness and with respect to what is best for the student.

In a previous post I asked about a student in summer school that obviously knew Algebra 1 (he earned 100% on his quizzes and tests), but failed during the year because he didn’t do his classwork.  The question is, Does he deserve to fail Algebra 1?

When you flip the situation around it is equally interesting.  There are many kids who work hard, but do not really understand or learn the math.  Do they deserve to pass based on the merits of effort?

The real issue with both of these situations is what grades mean, or what should they mean.  When I worked at Cochise Community College I adopted their definition of letter grades which is described below:

A – Mastery

B – Fluency

C – Proficiency

D – Lacking Proficiency

Those are clean and inoffensive definitions of grades.  A student with an A has mastered the material.  To be fluent means you can navigate the materials but not without error.  To be proficient means you can get the job done, but there are some gaps in ability, but the student can demonstrate a measurable level of command of all of the objectives. Students who earn a D are not able to demonstrate proficiency.

A student who struggles with the material does not deserve an A, even if they worked harder than those who earned an A.  This might seem unfair, but unless the objective of the class is to teach the value of hard work, to reward the hardworking, but barely proficient, student with a label of mastery is to cheat the student and cheapen the merit of your class.

Do these definitions mean that a lazy kid that get 95% on the final exam deserves an A, but that a hard working kid that gets a 52% on the same final deserves an F?  I say, with a few qualifications, yes.

Is this really fair to the student who works hard but has not yet realized an appropriate level of mastery to be awarded a passing grade? (I used the phrase, “has not yet,” instead of, “cannot,” to acknowledge the belief that students can learn, and if they are motivated and working, the only question will be the time scale of when they learn the material.)

I would say, for a math class, that the best thing that can happen is they are awarded the appropriate grade, an F.  Consider if this student is given a passing grade and the class is a prerequisite course?  They’re truly set up for failure in the subsequent class.

There is perhaps no worse example of bad teaching that remains within legals bounds than to inappropriately assign grades to students.  If a student deserves a C based on ability, but is given an A based on effort, they will believe they are doing everything right and do not need to improve in order to achieve similar success in subsequent courses.

But to give a student who possesses mastery a failing grade in a class because of lack of work ethic is to teach the student that passing classes is a matter of compliance.  Behave and you’ll be rewarded.  Those kids are taught that grades are not a reflection of knowledge or ability, and that means that education is not about learning.  To me, this is an injustice.

I do not believe in the efficacy of these objective lessons.  That would be, failing a student based on the notion that they do not deserve to pass because they are lazy. I believe that given meaningful and challenging opportunities, most of these highly intelligent, but seemingly lazy, students will show themselves to be hard working with amazing focus and direction and incredible capacity for quality work.

What about percentages.  Is it appropriate that an 80% is a B, if a B means fluency?

When I first began teaching I would have said, absolutely, a student does not deserve an A if they scored an 87% on their test.  Since then I’ve changed my mind.  Some topics require higher than 90% accuracy to be awarded an A, while with other topics, mastery might be far below 90%.

The level of complexity, variability of solutions and length of assessment all must be considered.  This is why sometimes a grading rubric is far superior to assigning grades based on a percentage of correctness or completion.

I teach a curriculum that is designed and tested by Cambridge University, the IGCSE test is what students take.  They have a very different way of assigning and defining grades than we use here in the United States.  Without going into details about how they do the specifics, they assign large portions of credit based on evidence of appropriate thinking.  In other words, if a student demonstrates understanding they will receive passing credit.  But, to achieve a high grade, mastery is truly measured.  And yet, in math at least, the percentages of correctness for mastery are usually in the mid-70’s.  This is because the nature of the questions asked are often non-procedural and the method of solution is not clear, students cannot be trained on how to answer the questions they face on IGCSE exams.

How a student can earn a grade varies, or should, depending on subject and age, and perhaps even minor topic within the subject.  I believe that separating student work into weighted categories is an appropriate method of helping make transparent to the student how their grade will be assigned.  It also by-passes the tricky question of, “What is a point?”  For me, a homework assignment is worth 5 points, they’re assigned daily, except Fridays, for a total of 20 points for the week.  Yet, a quiz might only be worth 12 points, but will be a far more accurate representation of student’s ability on the topic.

By assigning weights to the categories, this can be easily balanced.  This begs the question, how do you weight the categories?

But what about the student who works, performs all assigned tasks, but can only demonstrate a level of understanding best described as “Lacking Proficiency?”  Shouldn’t hard work be rewarded?

And whatever your beliefs on these questions, would your opinion change depending on the age of the student, or perhaps the subject?  Should a Chemistry student be rewarded for effort in the same way they’d be rewarded for effort in a Dance class?

At some point, nobody cares about potential or effort.  If a child’s mother wants his room clean, she knows he has the potential to clean it, but if he fails to do so, the potential matters not.  And if he’s really trying to get it done, but cannot master the discipline to carry through the task, does the effort really matter?

Here is how I set up my grades for high school.  It is nuanced and complicated, but I’ll give the outline.  Note that for college classes I use a different system.

In high school I weigh categories of grades and have changed the percentages and categories over time until I settled on what seems to work best.  These work for my students because it seems to motivate the lazy-smart students and also rewards the hardworking – low aptitude student, because if they remain persistent, they will learn.

Tests – 40%
Quizzes – 25%
Homework – 25%
Other – 10%

I believe extra credit should be awarded for students that perhaps help others, or for extraordinary performance.  However, a student should NOT be allowed to raise their grade through extra credit.  That is, at the end of the term a student is given a pile of work, that if performed, will raise their grade.  This is bad teaching!

The difference between a quiz and a test is similar to the difference between a doctor’s check-up versus an autopsy.  The quiz is a chance to see how things are going and adjust accordingly.  The test is final.  In high school I award credit for homework based on completion, but do not accept late homework.

Rewarding Effort?

While I wish that effort equaled success, it doesn’t always work that way…depending on how you define success.  For example, I can try as hard as possible to paint a world-famous landscape, but will likely fail if my measure of success is producing a world-famous piece of art. That said, I believe there is a reward beyond measure only discovered with true effort.  Our potential, our best, is not static, it changes.  It changes in respect to our current level of effort.  We can never fulfill our potential, you see.  It is always slightly above how hard we are trying.  So, if you’re not really trying, your potential decreases, but if you’re pushing your limits, the limits themselves stretch.  That is the real downfall of those with an inherent talent that never learn to push themselves.  Their potential decreases, dropping down to just higher than their level of effort.

I greatly reward effort, encourage it and makes positive examples of how effort promotes success.  However, I do not assign grades to effort.  How hard someone needs to try in a given subject to be successful varies entirely upon the student’s aptitude.  And suppose you have a truly gifted student, they could be great, if they learn to work hard, right?

Well, perhaps, but there’s more than work ethic involved in greatness.  What role does passion play?  Take a great young musician and over-structure their training and practice, they’ll burn out.  You’ll snuff their passion.

I asked the boy whose situation started this whole conversation if he felt he deserved to be in summer school.  Before he answered I explained that I didn’t have an expected answer, I didn’t really know if he belonged in summer school or not.  Without hesitation, he said he did deserve summer school, because, he said, he was lazy.

So maybe the kid will learn that if he’s lazy he gets punished.  But he also learns that grades are arbitrary, with respect to ability.

I do not like objective lessons, do not believe them to be effective.  I prefer a punishment that fits the crime, but also one that redirects the offender, allows them to correct their action.

I cannot say in this child’s case specifically, I was not there and I am not judging his teacher, but perhaps a quicker punishment that redirected him could have also taught him that being lazy was unacceptable and at the same time also allowed him to see grades as a reflection of his abilities.

All that said, this is highly contentious and varies incredibly depending on particular situations of students.

Let me know what you think, agree or disagree.  Leave me a comment.

## Exponents Part 2

two

Exponents
Part 2

Division

In the previous section
we learned that exponents are repeated multiplication, which on its own is not
tricky. What makes exponents tricky is
determining what is a base and what is not for a given exponent. It is imperative that you really understand
the material from the previous section before tackling what’s next. If you
did not attempt the practice problems, you need to. Also watch the video that review them.

In this section we are
going to see why anything to the power of zero is one and how to handle
negative exponents, and why they mean division.

What Happens with Division and Exponents?

Consider the following
expression, keeping in mind that the base is arbitrary, could be any number
(except zero, which will be explained soon).



3
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaleqabaGaaGynaaaaaaa@37A0@

This equals three times itself five total times:



3
5

=33333

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaleqabaGaaGynaaaakiabg2da9iaaiodacqGHflY1caaIZaGaeyyX
ICTaaG4maiabgwSixlaaiodacqGHflY1caaIZaaaaa@4589@

Now let’s divide this by 3. Note that 3 is just 31.



3
5

3
1

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGymaaaaaaaaaa@395E@

If we write this out to seek a pattern that we can
use for a short-cut, we see the following:



3
5

3
1

=

33333

3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGymaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpdaWcaaqaaiaaiodacqGHflY1caaIZaGaey
yXICTaaG4maiabgwSixlaaiodacqGHflY1caaIZaaabaGaaG4maaaa
aaa@4814@

If you recall how we explored reducing Algebraic
Fractions, the order of division and multiplication can be rearranged, provided
the division is written as multiplication of the reciprocal. That is how division is written here.



3
5

3
1

=
3
3

3333

1

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGymaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpdaWcaaqaaiaaiodaaeaacaaIZaaaaiabgw
SixpaalaaabaGaaG4maiabgwSixlaaiodacqGHflY1caaIZaGaeyyX
ICTaaG4maaqaaiaaigdaaaaaaa@48DF@

And of course 3/3 is 1, so this reduces to:



3
5

3
1

=3333=
3
4

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGymaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpcaaIZaGaeyyXICTaaG4maiabgwSixlaaio
dacqGHflY1caaIZaGaeyypa0JaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGinaaaa
aaa@46EE@

The short-cut is:



3
5

3
1

=
3

51

=
3
4

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGymaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpcaaIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aGaeyOeI0

That is, if the bases
are the same you can reduce. Reducing
eliminates one of the bases that is being multiplied by itself from both the
numerator and the denominator. A general
form of the third short-cut is here:

Short-Cut 3:



a
m

a
n

=
a

mn

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWGTbaaaaGcbaGaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGa
amOBaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpcaWGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWGTbGaeyOeI0
IaamOBaaaaaaa@3F10@

This might seem like a
worthless observation, but this will help articulate the very issue that is
going to cause trouble with exponents and division.



3
5

3
1

=
3
5

÷
3
1

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGymaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpcaaIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaOGaey
49aGRaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGymaaaaaaa@4002@

.

But that is different than



3
1

÷
3
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaaa@3B8A@

The expression above is the same as



3
1

3
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIXaaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGynaaaaaaaaaa@395F@

This comes into play
because



3
1

3
5

=
3

15

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIXaaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGynaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpcaaIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIXaGaeyOeI0
IaaGynaaaaaaa@3DC0@

,

and 1



MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaaaaaWdbiaa=nbiaaa@37C3@

5 = -4.

Negative Exponents?

In one sense, negative
means opposite. Exponents mean
multiplication, so a negative exponent is repeated division. This is absolutely true, but sometimes
difficult to write out. Division is not
as easy to write as multiplication.

Consider that 3-4
is 1 divided by 3, four times. 1 ÷ 3 ÷ 3
÷ 3 ÷ 3. But if we rewrite each of those
÷ 3 as multiplication by the reciprocal (1/3), it’s must cleaner and what
happens with a negative exponent is easier to see.



1÷3÷3÷3÷31
1
3

1
3

1
3

1
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
pa4kaaiodacqGH3daUcaaIZaGaey49aGRaaG4maiabgEpa4kaaioda
cqGHsgIRcaaIXaGaeyyXIC9aaSaaaeaacaaIXaaabaGaaG4maaaacq
GHflY1daWcaaqaaiaaigdaaeaacaaIZaaaaiabgwSixpaalaaabaGa
aGymaaqaaiaaiodaaaGaeyyXIC9aaSaaaeaacaaIXaaabaGaaG4maa
aaaaa@5482@

This is classically repeated multiplication. While one times itself any number of times is
still one, let’s go ahead and write it out this time.



1
1
3

1
3

1
3

1
3

1

(

1
3

)

4

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
SixpaalaaabaGaaGymaaqaaiaaiodaaaGaeyyXIC9aaSaaaeaacaaI
XaaabaGaaG4maaaacqGHflY1daWcaaqaaiaaigdaaeaacaaIZaaaai
abgwSixpaalaaabaGaaGymaaqaaiaaiodaaaGaeyOKH4QaaGymaiab
gwSixpaabmaabaWaaSaaaeaacaaIXaaabaGaaG4maaaaaiaawIcaca

This could also be written:



1
1
3

1
3

1
3

1
3

1

1
4

3
4

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
SixpaalaaabaGaaGymaaqaaiaaiodaaaGaeyyXIC9aaSaaaeaacaaI
XaaabaGaaG4maaaacqGHflY1daWcaaqaaiaaigdaaeaacaaIZaaaai
abgwSixpaalaaabaGaaGymaaqaaiaaiodaaaGaeyOKH4QaaGymaiab
gwSixpaalaaabaGaaGymamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGinaaaaaOqaaiaaio

The second expression
is easier, but both are shown here to make sure you see they are the same.

Since 1 times 14
is just one, we can simplify this further to:



1

1
4

3
4

=
1

3
4

.

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
SixpaalaaabaGaaGymamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGinaaaaaOqaaiaaioda
daahaaWcbeqaaiaaisdaaaaaaOGaeyypa0ZaaSaaaeaacaaIXaaaba
GaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGinaaaaaaGccaGGUaaaaa@40A3@

Negative exponents are
repeated division. Since division is hard to write and manipulate, we will
write negative exponents as multiplication of the reciprocal. In fact, if instructions say to simplify, you
cannot have a negative exponent in your final answer. You must rewrite it as multiplication of the reciprocal. Sometimes that can get ugly. Consider the following:



b

a

5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x

To keep this clean, let us consider separating this
single fraction as the product of two rational expressions.



b

a

5

=
b
1

1

a

5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGIbaabaGaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGynaaaaaaGccqGH

The b is
not a problem here, but the other rational expression is problematic. We need to multiply by the reciprocal of



1

a

5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIXaaabaGaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGynaaaaaaaaaa@3981@

, which is just a5.



b

a

5

=
b
1

a
5

1

=
a
5

b

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGIbaabaGaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGynaaaaaaGccqGH
yyamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGynaaaaaOqaaiaaigdaaaGaeyypa0Jaamyy

.

This can also be
considered a complex fraction, the likes of which we will see very soon. Let’s
see how that works.



b

a

5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGIbaaqqaaaaaaOpGqSvxza8qabaGaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOe
I0IaaGynaaaaaaaaaa@3C44@

Note:



a

5

=
1

a
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
eB1vgapeGaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGynaaaak8aacqGH
9aqpqqa6daaaaaGuLrgapiWaaSaaaeaacaaIXaaabaGaamyyamaaCa
aaleqabaGaaGynaaaaaaaaaa@4134@

Substituting this we get:



b

1

a
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
daahaaWcbeqaaiaaiwdaaaaaaaaaaaa@3BB5@

This is b
divided by 1/a5.



b÷
1

a
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaa@3BB6@

Let’s multiply by the reciprocal:



b
a
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x

Now we will rewrite it in alphabetical order (a good
habit, for sure).



a
5

b

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x

Let us consider one
more example before we make our fourth short-cut. With this example we could actually apply our
second short-cut, but it will not offer much insight into how these exponents
work with division.

This is the trickiest
of all of the ways in which exponents are manipulated, so it is worth the extra
exploration.



2
x

2

y

5

z

2

2

x
y
3

z

5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaWcbeqaaiabgkHiTiaaiwdaaaGccaWG6baabaGaaGOmamaaCaaale
ZaaaaOGaamOEamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGynaaaaaaaaaa@45E3@

As you see we have four
separate bases. In order to simplify
this expression we need one of each base (2, x, y, z), and all positive exponents. So let’s separate this into the product of
four rational expressions, then simplify each.



2
x

2

y

5

z

2

2

x
y
3

z

5

2

2

2

x

2

x

y

5

y
3

z

z

5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaWcbeqaaiabgkHiTiaaiwdaaaGccaWG6baabaGaaGOmamaaCaaale
ZaaaaOGaamOEamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGynaaaaaaGccqGHsg
IRdaWcaaqaaiaaikdaaeaacaaIYaWaaWbaaSqabeaacqGHsislcaaI
YaaaaaaakiabgwSixpaalaaabaGaamiEamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0
aSqabeaacqGHsislcaaI1aaaaaGcbaGaamyEamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG
beaacqGHsislcaaI1aaaaaaaaaa@5ED4@

The base of two first:



2

2

2

2÷
2

2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIYaaabaGaaGOmamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGOmaaaaaaGccqGH
sgIRcaaIYaGaey49aGRaaGOmamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGOmaa
aaaaa@40D5@

We wrote it as
division. What we will see is dividing
is multiplication by the reciprocal, and then the negative exponent is also
dividing, which is multiplication by the reciprocal. The reciprocal of the reciprocal is just the
original. But watch what happens with the
sign of the exponent.

First we will rewrite
the negative exponent as repeated division.



2÷
1

2
2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaa@3B5E@

Now we will rewrite
division as multiplication by the reciprocal.



2
2
2

=
2
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aSqabeaacaaIZaaaaaaa@3D58@

Keep in mind, this is
the same as 23/1.

We will offer similar
treatment to the other bases.

Consider first



x

2

x

=

x

2

1

1
x

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WG4bWaaWbaaSqabeaacqGHsislcaaIYaaaaaGcbaGaamiEaaaacqGH

Negative exponents are division, so:



x

2

x

=

x

2

1

1
x

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WG4bWaaWbaaSqabeaacqGHsislcaaIYaaaaaGcbaGaamiEaaaacqGH

Notice the x that is already dividing (in the
denominator) does not change. It has a
positive exponent, which means it is already written as division.



x

2

1

1
x

1

x
2

1
x

=
1

x
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WG4bWaaWbaaSqabeaacqGHsislcaaIYaaaaaGcbaGaaGymaaaacqGH
flY1daWcaaqaaiaaigdaaeaacaWG4baaaiabgkziUoaalaaabaGaaG
aeaacaaIXaaabaGaamiEaaaacqGH9aqpdaWcaaqaaiaaigdaaeaaca
WG4bWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaaaaaaa@4A23@

This is exactly how simplifying the y and z will operation.



2
3

1

1

x
2

x

1

y
5

y
3

z
z
5

1

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIYaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaaGcbaGaaGymaaaacqGHflY1daWc
aaqaaiaaigdaaeaacaWG4bWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIYaaaaOGaeyyXIC
TaamiEaaaacqGHflY1daWcaaqaaiaaigdaaeaacaWG5bWaaWbaaSqa
beaacaaI1aaaaOGaeyyXICTaamyEamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG4maaaaaa
caaI1aaaaaGcbaGaaGymaaaaaaa@5256@

Putting it all together:



2
x

2

y

5

z

2

2

x
y
3

z

5

=

2
3

z
6

x
3

y
8

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaWcbeqaaiabgkHiTiaaiwdaaaGccaWG6baabaGaaGOmamaaCaaale
ZaaaaOGaamOEamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGynaaaaaaGccqGH9a
aSqabeaacaaI2aaaaaGcbaGaamiEamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG4maaaaki

.

Short-Cut 4:
Negative exponents are division, so they need to be rewritten as multiplication
by writing the reciprocal and changing the sign of the exponent. The last common question is what happens to
the negative sign for the reciprocal?
What happens to the division sign here:



3÷5=3×
1
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
pa4kaaiwdacqGH9aqpcaaIZaGaey41aq7aaSaaaeaacaaIXaaabaGa
aGynaaaaaaa@3F12@

.
When you rewrite division you are writing it as multiplication. Positive exponents are repeated
multiplication.



a

m

=
1

a
m

,
1

a

m

=
a
m

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaamyBaaaakiabg2da9maalaaabaGaaGymaaqa
UaaGPaVlaaykW7daWcaaqaaiaaigdaaeaacaWGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaa
gaaaaaaa@4A81@

This is the second to
last thing we need to learn about exponents.
However, a lot of practice is required to master them fully.

To see why anything to
the power of zero is one, let’s
consider:



3
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaleqabaGaaGynaaaaaaa@37A0@

This equals three times itself five total times:



3
5

=3"#x22C5;3333

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaleqabaGaaGynaaaakiabg2da9iaaiodacqGHflY1caaIZaGaeyyX
ICTaaG4maiabgwSixlaaiodacqGHflY1caaIZaaaaa@4589@

Now let’s divide this by 35.



3
5

3
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGynaaaaaaaaaa@3962@

Without using short-cut 3, we have this:



3
5

3
5

=

33333

33333

=1

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGynaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpdaWcaaqaaiaaiodacqGHflY1caaIZaGaey
yXICTaaG4maiabgwSixlaaiodacqGHflY1caaIZaaabaGaaG4maiab
gwSixlaaiodacqGHflY1caaIZaGaeyyXICTaaG4maiabgwSixlaaio
daaaGaeyypa0JaaGymaaaa@55F5@

Using short-cut 3, we have this:



3
5

3
5

=
3

55

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aGynaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpcaaIZaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aGaeyOeI0
IaaGynaaaaaaa@3DC7@

Five minutes five is zero:



3

55

=
3
0

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaleqabaGaaGynaiabgkHiTiaaiwdaaaGccqGH9aqpcaaIZaWaaWba
aSqabeaacaaIWaaaaaaa@3BFF@

Then 30 = 1.

Τhe
3 was an arbitrary base. This would work
with any number except zero. You cannot
divide by zero, it does not give us a number.

The beautiful thing
about this is that no matter how ugly the base is, if the exponent is zero, the
answer is just one. No need to simplify or perform calculation.



(

3

2x1

e

πi

n=1

1

n
2

)

0

=1

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
HiLdaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIWaaaaOGaeyyp
a0JaaGymaaaa@4DBA@

Let’s take a quick look
at all of our rules so far.

 Short-Cut Example  a m ⋅ a n = a m+n MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaamyyamaaCa aaleqabaGaamyBaaaakiabgwSixlaadggadaahaaWcbeqaaiaad6ga aaGccqGH9aqpcaWGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWGTbGaey4kaSIaamOBaa aaaaa@4140@  5 8 ⋅5= 5 8+1 = 5 9 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaaGynamaaCa aaleqabaGaaGioaaaakiabgwSixlaaiwdacqGH9aqpcaaI1aWaaWba aSqabeaacaaI4aGaey4kaSIaaGymaaaakiabg2da9iaaiwdadaahaa WcbeqaaiaaiMdaaaaaaa@41C8@  ( a m ) n = a mn MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaeWaaeaaca WGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWGTbaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqa beaacaWGUbaaaOGaeyypa0JaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGaamyBaiaad6 gaaaaaaa@3EB7@  ( 7 2 ) 5 = 7 10 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaeWaaeaaca aI3aWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIYaaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqa beaacaaI1aaaaOGaeyypa0JaaG4namaaCaaaleqabaGaaGymaiaaic daaaaaaa@3D93@  a m a n = a m−n MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaSaaaeaaca WGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWGTbaaaaGcbaGaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGa amOBaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpcaWGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWGTbGaeyOeI0 IaamOBaaaaaaa@3F11@  5 7 5 2 = 5 7−2 = 5 5 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaSaaaeaaca aI1aWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI3aaaaaGcbaGaaGynamaaCaaaleqabaGa aGOmaaaaaaGccqGH9aqpcaaI1aWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI3aGaeyOeI0 IaaGOmaaaakiabg2da9iaaiwdadaahaaWcbeqaaiaaiwdaaaaaaa@4087@  a −m = 1 a m  &   1 a −m = a m MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaamyyamaaCa aaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaamyBaaaakiabg2da9maalaaabaGaaGymaaqa aiaadggadaahaaWcbeqaaiaad2gaaaaaaOGaaeiiaiaabAcacaqGGa GaaeiiamaalaaabaGaaGymaaqaaiaadggadaahaaWcbeqaaiabgkHi Tiaad2gaaaaaaOGaeyypa0JaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGaamyBaaaaaa a@4637@  4 −3 = 1 4 3 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaaGinamaaCa aaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaG4maaaakiabg2da9maalaaabaGaaGymaaqa aiaaisdadaahaaWcbeqaaiaaiodaaaaaaaaa@3C0F@  a 0 =1 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaamyyamaaCa aaleqabaGaaGimaaaakiabg2da9iaaigdaaaa@398F@ 50 = 1

Let’s try some practice
problems.

Instructions: Simplify the following.

1.



(

2
8

)

1/3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aIYaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI4aaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqa
beaacaaIXaGaai4laiaaiodaaaaaaa@3B8D@

2.



3
x
2

(

3
x
2

)

3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
4bWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIYaaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqabe
aacaaIZaaaaaaa@400E@

3.



5

5
m

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI1aaabaGaaGynamaaCaaaleqabaGaamyBaaaaaaaaaa@38A4@

4.



5
2

x

3

y
5

5

3

x

4

y

5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aI1aWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIYaaaaOGaamiEamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOe
WaaWbaaSqabeaacqGHsislcaaIZaaaaOGaamiEamaaCaaaleqabaGa
aaaaaa@44E1@

5.



7÷7÷7÷7÷7÷7÷7÷7

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
pa4kaaiEdacqGH3daUcaaI3aGaey49aGRaaG4naiabgEpa4kaaiEda
cqGH3daUcaaI3aGaey49aGRaaG4naiabgEpa4kaaiEdaaaa@4B9C@

6.



9
x
2

y÷9
x
2

y

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
daahaaWcbeqaaiaaikdaaaGccaWG5baaaa@3F94@

7.



9
x
2

y÷(

9
x
2

y

)

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaa@411D@

8.



(

x
2

2
x
6

)

2

(

x
2

2
x
6

)

2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
cqGHflY1caaIYaGaamiEamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGOnaaaaaOGaayjkai
aawMcaamaaCaaaleqabaGaeyOeI0IaaGOmaaaaaaa@4BF0@

9.



(

a
m

)

n

a
m

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWGTbaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqa
beaacaWGUbaaaOGaeyyXICTaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGaamyBaaaaaa
a@3F08@

10.



(

3
x
2

+4

)

2

(

3
x
2

+4

)

3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aGinaaGaayjkaiaawMcaamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGOmaaaaaOqaamaabm
0aaacaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaaaaaaa@4390@

## Exponents Part 1

exponents part 1

Exponents Part 1

One of the biggest
things to understand about math is how it is written. The spatial arrangement of characters is syntax. Syntax, in English, refers to the arrangements
of words to convey meaning.

Exponents are just a
way of writing repeated multiplication.
If we are multiplying a number by itself repeatedly, we can use an
exponent to tell how many times the number is being multiplied. That’s it.
Nothing tricky exists with exponents, no new operations or concepts to
tackle. If you’re familiar with
multiplication and its properties, exponents should be accessible.

That said, it is not
without its pitfalls. A balance between conceptual
understanding and procedural short-cuts is needed to avoid those pitfalls. The only way to strike that balance is
through a careful progression of exercises and examples. An answer-getting mentality will lead to big
troubles with exponents. People wishing
to learn how exponents work must seek understanding.

Let’s establish some
facts that will come into play with this first part of exponents.

1.
Exponents are repeated multiplication

2.
Multiplication

3.
counting

To simplify simple
expressions with exponents you only need to know a few short-cuts, but to
recall and understand, we need more.
These facts are important.

With an exponential
expression we have a base, the number being multiplied by itself, and the
exponent, the small number on the top right of the base which describes how
many times the base is being multiplied by itself.



a
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaleqabaGaaGynaaaaaaa@37C9@

The number a is the base. We don’t know what a is other than it is a number.
It’s not a big deal that we don’t know exactly what number it is, we

Five is the exponent, which
means there are five a’s, all
multiplying together, like this:



aaaaa.

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
caGGUaaaaa@444F@

Something to keep in
mind is that this expression equals another number. Since we don’t know what a is, we cannot find out exactly what it is, but we do know it’s a
perfect 5th power number, like 32.
See, 25 = 32.

What if we had another number
multiplying with a5, like
this:



a
5

b
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaaa@3BEE@

If we write this out,
without the exponents we see we have 5 a’s
and 3 b’s, all multiplying together. We don’t know what a or b equals, but we do
know they’re multiplying so we could change the order of multiplication
(commutative property) or group them together in anyway we wish (associative
property) without changing the value.



a
5

b
3

=aaaaabbb

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
eyyXICTaamOyaaaa@5437@

And these would be the same:



(

aa

)
(

aaa

)
(

bbb

)

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGHbGaeyyXICTaamyyaaGaayjkaiaawMcaamaabmaabaGaamyyaiab



(

aa

)
[
(

aaa

)
(

bbb

)
]

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
wMcaaaGaay5waiaaw2faaaaa@4F29@



(

aa

)

[
ab
]

3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x



a
2

[
ab
]

3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x

This is true because
the brackets group together the a and
b, making them both the base. The brackets put them together. The base is ab, and the exponent is 3. This
means we have ab multiplied by itself
three times.

Keep in mind, these are
the intended meaning behind the spatial arrangement of bases, parenthesis and
exponents.

Now, the bracketed expression
above is different than ab3,
which is



abbb

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x

.



(

ab

)

3

a
b
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGHbGaamOyaaGaayjkaiaawMcaamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG4maaaakiab

Let’s expand these exponents and see why this is:



(

ab

)

3

a
b
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGHbGaamOyaaGaayjkaiaawMcaamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG4maaaakiab

Write out the base ab times itself three times:



(

ab

)
(

ab

)
(

ab

)
abbb

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaa@4C39@

The commutative property of multiplication allows us
to rearrange the order in which we multiply the a’s and b’s.



aaabbbabbb

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGIbGaeyyXICTaamOyaaaa@5310@

Rewriting this repeated multiplication we get:



a
3

b
3

a
b
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
GjsUcaWGHbGaamOyamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG4maaaaaaa@3E2A@

The following, though, is true:



(

a
b
3

)
=a
b
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGHbGaamOyamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG4maaaaaOGaayjkaiaawMcaaiab

On the right, the a has only an exponent of 1. If you do not see an exponent written, it is
one. If we write it out we see:



(

abbb

)
=abbb

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
GaeyyXICTaamOyaaaa@4D78@

In summary of this
first exploration, the base can be tricky to see. Parenthesis group things together. An exponent written outside the parenthesis
creates all of the terms inside the parenthesis as the base. But if numbers are multiplying, but not
grouped, and one has an exponent, the exponent only belongs to the number just
below it on the left. For example,



4
x
3

,

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x

the four has an exponent of just one, while
the x is being cubed.

Consider:



(

x+5

)

3

.

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WG4bGaey4kaSIaaGynaaGaayjkaiaawMcaamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG4m
aaaakiaac6caaaa@3BC4@

This means the base is x + 5 and it is multiplied by itself three times.



(

x+5

)

3

=(

x+5

)
(

x+5

)
(

x+5

)

(

x+5

)

3

x
3

+
5
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
caaIZaaaaOGaeyypa0ZaaeWaaeaacaWG4bGaey4kaSIaaGynaaGaay
jkaiaawMcaamaabmaabaGaamiEaiabgUcaRiaaiwdaaiaawIcacaGL
WaaeWaaeaacaWG4bGaey4kaSIaaGynaaGaayjkaiaawMcaamaaCaaa
GccqGHRaWkcaaI1aWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaOGaaeiiaiaabcca
caqGGaaaaaa@55E5@

Repeated Multiplication Allows Us Some Short-Cuts

Consider the expression:



a
3

×
a
2

.

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaa@4153@

If we wrote this out,
we would have:



aaa×aa

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
0cbbOpaaaaaasvgza8GacaWGHbGaeyyXICTaamyyaaaa@483B@

.

(Note: In math we don’t use colors to differentiate
between two things. A red a and a blue a
are the same. These are colored to help
us keep of track of what’s happening with each part of the expression
.)

This is three a’s multiplying with another two a’s.
That means there are five a’s
multiplying.



a
3

×
a
2

=
a
5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
qpcaWGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaaa@4379@

Before we generalize
this to find the short-cut, let us see something similar, but is a potential
pitfall.



a
3

×
b
2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x

If we write this out we get:



aaa×bb

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
0cbbOpaaaaaasvgza8GacaWGIbGaeyyXICTaamOyaaaa@483D@

This would not be an
exponent of 5, in anyway. An exponent of
five means the base is being multiplied by itself five times. Here we have an a as a base, and three of those multiplying, and a b as a base, and two of those
multiplying. Not five of anything.

The common language is that
if the bases are the same we can add the exponents. This is a hand short-cut, but if you forget
where it comes from and why it is true, you’ll undoubtedly confuse it with some
of the other short-cuts that follow.

Short-Cut 1: If the bases are the same you can add the
exponents. This is true because
exponents are repeated multiplication and the associative property says that
the order in which you group things does not matter (when multiplying).



a
m

×
a
n

=
a

m+n

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaGccqGH9aqpcaWGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWGTbGaey4kaSIaamOBaa
aaaaa@410D@

The second short-cut
comes from groups and exponents.



(

a
3

)

2

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqa
beaacaaIYaaaaaaa@3A43@

This means the base is a3, and it is being multiplied by itself.



a
3

×
a
3

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaaaaa@3BB8@

Our previous short cut said that if the bases are
the same, we can add the exponents because we are just adding how many of the
base is being multiplied by itself.



a
3

×
a
3

=
a

3+3

=
a
6

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aaGccqGH9aqpcaWGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaGaey4kaSIaaG4maa

But this is not much of
a short cut. Let us look at the original
expression and the outcome and look for a pattern.



(

a
3

)

2

=
a
6

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqa
beaacaaIYaaaaOGaeyypa0JaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGOnaaaaaa
a@3D26@

Short-Cut 2: A power raised to another is multiplied.



(

a
m

)

n

=
a

m×n

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WGHbWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWGTbaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqa
beaacaWGUbaaaOGaeyypa0JaamyyamaaCaaaleqabaGaamyBaiabgE

Be careful here,
though:



a

(

b
3

c
2

)

5

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x

=



a
b

15

c

10

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
aGymaiaaicdaaaaaaa@3BFF@

Practice Problems

 1.        x 4 ⋅ x 2 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaamiEamaaCa aaleqabaGaaGinaaaakiabgwSixlaadIhadaahaaWcbeqaaiaaikda aaaaaa@3C18@ 8.  ( 5xy ) 3 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaeWaaeaaca aI1aGaamiEaiaadMhaaiaawIcacaGLPaaadaahaaWcbeqaaiaaioda aaaaaa@3B23@ 2.        y 9 ⋅y MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaamyEamaaCa aaleqabaGaaGyoaaaakiabgwSixlaadMhaaaa@3B36@ 9.  ( 8 m 4 ) 2 ⋅ m 3 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaeWaaeaaca aI4aGaamyBamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGinaaaaaOGaayjkaiaawMcaamaa CaaaleqabaGaaGOmaaaakiabgwSixlaad2gadaahaaWcbeqaaiaaio daaaaaaa@3F41@ 3.        z 2 ⋅z⋅ z 3 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaamOEamaaCa aaleqabaGaaGOmaaaakiabgwSixlaadQhacqGHflY1caWG6bWaaWba aSqabeaacaaIZaaaaaaa@3F64@ 10.  ( 3 x 5 ) 3 ( 3 2 x 7 ) 2 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaeWaaeaaca aIZaGaamiEamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGynaaaaaOGaayjkaiaawMcaamaa CaaaleqabaGaaG4maaaakmaabmaabaGaaG4mamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG OmaaaakiaadIhadaahaaWcbeqaaiaaiEdaaaaakiaawIcacaGLPaaa daahaaWcbeqaaiaaikdaaaaaaa@413A@ 4.        ( x 5 ) 2 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaeWaaeaaca WG4bWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI1aaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqa beaacaaIYaaaaaaa@3A5B@ 11.  7 ( 7 2 x 4 ) 5 ⋅ 7 3 x 5 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaaG4namaabm aabaGaaG4namaaCaaaleqabaGaaGOmaaaakiaadIhadaahaaWcbeqa aiaaisdaaaaakiaawIcacaGLPaaadaahaaWcbeqaaiaaiwdaaaGccq GHflY1caaI3aWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaOGaamiEamaaCaaaleqa baGaaGynaaaaaaa@42C5@ 5.        ( y 4 ) 6 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaWaaeWaaeaaca WG5bWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaI0aaaaaGccaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqa beaacaaI2aaaaaaa@3A5F@ 12.  5 3 + 5 3 + 5 3 + 5 3 + 5 3 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaaGynamaaCa aaleqabaGaaG4maaaakiabgUcaRiaaiwdadaahaaWcbeqaaiaaioda aaGccqGHRaWkcaaI1aWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaOGaey4kaSIaaG ynamaaCaaaleqabaGaaG4maaaakiabgUcaRiaaiwdadaahaaWcbeqa aiaaiodaaaaaaa@41F4@ 6.        x 3 + x 3 + x 3 + x 8 + x 8 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaamiEamaaCa aaleqabaGaaG4maaaakiabgUcaRiaadIhadaahaaWcbeqaaiaaioda aaGccqGHRaWkcaWG4bWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIZaaaaOGaey4kaSIaam iEamaaCaaaleqabaGaaGioaaaakiabgUcaRiaadIhadaahaaWcbeqa aiaaiIdaaaaaaa@4334@ 13.  3 2 ⋅9 MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaaG4mamaaCa aaleqabaGaaGOmaaaakiabgwSixlaaiMdaaaa@3AB4@ 7.        4 x + 4 x + 4 x MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaaGinamaaCa aaleqabaGaamiEaaaakiabgUcaRiaaisdadaahaaWcbeqaaiaadIha aaGccqGHRaWkcaaI0aWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWG4baaaaaa@3D87@ 14.  4 x ⋅ 4 x ⋅ 4 x MathType@MTEF@5@5@+= feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr 4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9 vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x fr=xb9adbaqaaeGaciGaaiaabeqaamaabaabaaGcbaGaaGinamaaCa aaleqabaGaamiEaaaakiabgwSixlaaisdadaahaaWcbeqaaiaadIha aaGccqGHflY1caaI0aWaaWbaaSqabeaacaWG4baaaaaa@4057@

## The Smallest Things Can Cause Huge Problems for Students

preemptive

Pre-Emptive Explanation

It is often the case,
for the mathematically-insecure, that the slightest point of confusion can
completely undermine their determination.
Consider a beginning Algebra student that is learning how to evaluate functions
like:



f(
x
)
=3x
x
2

+1

f(
2
)

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
cqGHsislcaWG4bWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIYaaaaOGaey4kaSIaaGymaa

A confident student is
likely to make the same error as the insecure student, but their reactions will
be totally different. Below would be a
typical incorrect answer that students will make:



f(
2
)
=3(
2
)

2
2

+1

f(
2
)
=6+4+1

f(
2
)
=11

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aaatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
WaaeWaaeaacaaIYaaacaGLOaGaayzkaaGaeyypa0JaaG4mamaabmaa
aaikdaaaGccqGHRaWkcaaIXaaabaGaamOzamaabmaabaGaaGOmaaGa
caaIXaGaaGymaaaaaa@4F4E@

3, and the mistake is that -22 = -4, because it is really subtract
two-squared. And when students make this mistake it provides a great chance to
help them learn to read math, especially how exponents are written and what
they mean.

Here’s what the



f(
x
)
=3x
x
2

+1

f(
2
)
=3(
2
)
+
(

2

)

2

+1

MathType@MTEF@5@5@+=
feaagKart1ev2aqatCvAUfeBSjuyZL2yd9gzLbvyNv2CaerbuLwBLn
hiov2DGi1BTfMBaeXatLxBI9gBaerbd9wDYLwzYbItLDharqqtubsr
4rNCHbGeaGqiVu0Je9sqqrpepC0xbbL8F4rqqrFfpeea0xe9Lq=Jc9
vqaqpepm0xbba9pwe9Q8fs0=yqaqpepae9pg0FirpepeKkFr0xfr=x
cqGHsislcaWG4bWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIYaaaaOGaey4kaSIaaGymaa
ZaWaaeWaaeaacaaIYaaacaGLOaGaayzkaaGaey4kaSYaaeWaaeaacq
GHsislcaaIYaaacaGLOaGaayzkaaWaaWbaaSqabeaacaaIYaaaaOGa
ey4kaSIaaGymaaaaaa@4E85@

A confident student
will be receptive to this without much encouragement from you. However, the insecure student will completely
shut down, having found validation of their worst fears about their future in
mathematics.

There are times when
leaving traps for students is a great way to expose a misconception, and in
those cases, preemptively trying to prevent them from making the mistake would
actually, in the long run, be counter-productive. Students would likely be mimicking what’s
being taught, but would never uncover their misconception through correct
answer getting. Mistakes are a huge part
of learning and good math teaching is not about getting kids to avoid wrong